Biomaterials

Non-Compound Agricultural By-Product

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Low inherent stability as loose/low-density particles or fibres; needs densification and a binder to carry load.

Sourced from agricultural streams; logistics and QA/QC are the main constraints.

Raw materials/ By-product are uncertain in their viability, requires constant evaluation.

Moderate deterioration under freeze–thaw and moisture cycling; periodicsealing/patching required.

Theoretically possible

Consistent with materials science and building physics; pathways for performance are identified in literature.

Lab proven

Bench and pilot studies show viable strength/stability when by-products are processed and graded.

Raw materials accessible

Minimal Processing required*

*Grading & drying, after all elements are evaluated and unitised

Source feedstock

Husk, straw, bagasse, fibers.

Clean

Remove contaminants.

Dry

Target moisture.

Size/Grade

Mill, sieve to spec.

Optional Pre-Treat

Anti-mold, mild alkali wash.

Densify

Bale/pellet/mat as needed.

Select Binder

lime/clay/biopolymer/geopolymer.

Mix & Form

Panels/blocks/infill.

Compact/Press

Achieve density.

Cure/dry

Per binder.

Seal/Finish

Surface protection.

QA

Density, moisture, strength.

Install

Detailing for moisture.

Maintain

Periodic sealing/patching.

Relevant Readings

From agricultural by-products to building materials: A spatial modelling approach to foster green construction sector

Production of Sustainable Construction Materials Using Agro-Wastes

Upcycling agricultural and plastic waste for sustainable construction: a review

13 - Agricultural by-products as construction materials

Upcycling agricultural and plastic waste for sustainable construction: a review

Conversion of waste into sustainable construction materials: A review of recent developments and prospects

The potential of agri-food waste to solve construction's environmental problems: A review

Utilizing agricultural waste in brick manufacturing for sustainable consumption and circular economy

A Scientometric Analysis Review on Agricultural Wastes Used as Building Materials

Utilizing rice husk ash as cement replacement in pervious concrete: A review

Designing sustainable cement free compositions with rice husk ash to improve mechanical performance in next generation ecoblocks

Innovative Characterisation of By-Products from Intensive Agriculture for Their Use as Reinforcement in Biocomposites and Construction Materials

Utilizing agricultural waste in brick manufacturing for sustainable consumption and circular economy

Compound Biomass

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Compounding, bonding, or mineral pre-treatment
required.

Composite interfaces and bonds can weather, inspect and rebind/seal regularly.

Theoretically possible

Combination/compound routes are physically plausible; blending and bonding mechanisms are well-understood.

Lab proven

Lab-scale composites demonstrate predictable behavior with proper mix design and curing.

Raw materials accessible

Accessible where supply chains for biomass and binders exist.

Moderate stability

When compounded/bonded, engineered composites can meet non-primary structural
roles.

Select

biomass + mineral/polymeric binder.

Pre-treat biomass

Alkali/mineralization as needed.

Fractionate

Control aspect ratio.

Dosage design

Mix ratios by mass/volume.

Disperse uniformly

Form

Moulds, sheets, SIP-like cores.

Consolidate

Vibration/pressing.

Cure

Temperature/humidity control.

Finish

Edges, coatings.

QA

Compressive/flexural, water uptake.

Maintenance

Inspect bonds, reseal if needed.

Relevant Readings

Composite materials from forest biomass : a review of current practices, science, and technology

A review on recent research on bio-based building materials and their applications

Fast-Growing Bio-Based Construction Materials as an Approach to Accelerate United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

Preparation of biomass composites with high performance and carbon sequestration from waste wood fibers

The Use of Materials from Biomass as Construction Materials

The use of biomass to produce bio-based composites and building materials

Development of an Extrudable Paste to build Mycelium-bound Composites

Robust Myco-Composites as a Platform for Versatile Hybrid-Living Structural Materials

Circular bio-based building materials: A literature review of case studies and sustainability assessment methods

The Reuse of Biomass and Industrial Waste in Biocomposite Construction Materials for Decreasing Natural Resource Use and Mitigating the Environmental Impact of the Construction Industry: A Review

Scientists create living building material that captures CO₂ from the air

A Review of Composite Phase Change Materials Based on Biomass Materials

Micro-Algae

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Living layer degrades outdoors; requires
nutrient/biomass renewal and environmental control.

Theoretically possible

Engineered strains can precipitate cementitious compounds (e.g., CaCO2) — mechanism is established.

Lab proven

Multiple studies demonstrate bio-cementation and
crack-healing in controlled settings.

Raw materials accessible

Culturing and media are standard; scale depends on bioreactor capacity.

Biological films or precipitates alone are not structural
; requires host matrix for

strength.

Select

Strain and medium.

Inoculate & Grow

In bioreactors to target density.

Provide CO₂, light, nutrients, monitor pH.

Induce precipitation

Adjust Ca²⁺/pH if bio-cement route.

Deliverate

Harvest slurry or circulate through substrate.

Deposit/infuse

On host matrix (sand/concrete surface/fabric).

Set/cure

Allow mineral deposition or film formation.

Dry or overcoat

With binder if required.

Layering

Repeat to build thickness.

QA

Mass gain, bonding, microstructure. Maintain light/nutrients if kept living.

End-of-life

Safe disposal/inactivation.

Relevant Readings

Microalgae-integrated building enclosures: a nature-based solution for carbon sequestration

Algae-Based Building Materials: Applications, Challenges, and Prospects

Development of composites based on residual microalgae biomass cultivated in wastewater

Advancements in microalgal biomass conversion for rubber composite applications

Algae-Powered Buildings: A Review of an Innovative, Sustainable Approach in the Built Environment

Solving Challenges in Microalgae-Based Living Materials

Biophilic Architecture: Sustainable Materialization of Microalgae Facades

Enhancing Microalgae Content in Biocomposites through a Mechanical Grinding Method

Characterization of Microalgae Biomass-Based Composites Obtained through Rotational Molding

Genetically Modified Bacteria

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

More studies needed: Evidence is emerging; robust, repeatable lab protocols for target performance are still under development.

Difficult material sourcing: Regulatory and biosafety hurdles limit general
accessibility.

Gene editing and biosafety workflows required.

Containment and viability checks are ongoing; plan scheduled renewals.

Theoretically possible

Directed genetic pathways for target outputs are feasible in principle.

Targeted production of cementitious/adhesive compounds can enhance matrix strength to structural
levels.

Define target output

Calcite, EPS, adhesive.

Design/edit strain

Verify containment level.

Validate

Phenotype and safety.

Scale culture

Prepare inducers and nutrients.

Deliver

To substrate (immersion, injection, spray).

Trigger production

Hold environmental setpoints.

Integrate

With host binder/matrix.

Cure

Inactivate cells post-production.

QA

Bond strength, leachate, biosafety checks.

Documentation

Regulatory compliance.

Maintenance

Monitoring if active systems remain.

Relevant Readings

Engineering living building materials for enhanced bacterial viability and mechanical properties

Advances in microbial self-healing concrete: A critical review of mechanisms, developments, and future directions

Bacteria-Filled Bricks Build Themselves

Bacteria-fungi mortar: construction with reclaimed materials and microbial composite

Living porous ceramics for bacteria-regulated gas sensing and carbon capture

Aerogel from sustainably grown bacterial cellulose pellicle as thermally insulative film for building envelope

Directed Evolution of Microorganisms for Engineered Living Materials

Bio-concrete and biogenic construction materials with cyanobacteria

Advances in microbial self-healing concrete: A critical review of mechanisms, developments, and future directions

Bio-based bacterial concrete: a sustainable alternative in construction

Living fungus-based building material repairs itself for over a month

These new building materials are alive, photosynthetic— and carbon hungry

Agricultural by-product replaced inorganic materials

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Access not guaranteed: Access depends on specialized partners for surface chemistry and fusion processing.

Individual processing required: Surface modification and fusion processes (e.g., coupling agents, thermal/chemical steps). Surface modification and fusion processes (e.g., coupling agents, thermal/chemical steps).

Theoretically possible

Organic–inorganic fusion at cellular/meso scales is physically plausible with suitable interfaces.

Lab proven

Lab prototypes show organic–inorganic fusing with measurable interfacial
strength.

Easy maintenance

Post-fusion hybrid is inert/stable; visual checks
only.

Select

Organic fraction: fibers/particles.

inorganic host: Cement/lime/ceramic/glass/polymer

Pre-treat organics

Wash, dry, size; apply coupling agents (e.g., silanes).

Activate

Inorganic surface/process (sol-gel/alkali/thermal).

Mix

Under controlled shear/temperature.

Form composite

Layup, casting, hot-press.

Cure/anneal

To complete interfacial bonding.

Post-treat

Trim, seal.

QA

Interfacial shear, flexural, durability.

Install

With moisture/UV detailing.

Relevant Readings

Organic-inorganic hybrids: A comprehensive review on synthesis and their potential applications

Current and Future Insights in Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Materials

Promising biomass waste–derived insulation materials for application in construction and buildings

Construction of Inorganic Bulks through Coalescence of Particle Precursors

Biobased composites from agro-industrial wastes and by-products

New Resources for Sustainable Thermal Insulation Using Textile and Agricultural Waste in a New Circular Economy Approach: An Overview

Agricultural by-product replaced inorganic materials

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Inconsistent lab result Proofs of concept exist, but consistent, reproducible structural replacements are not yet standardized.

Niche availability. Niche availability; requires tailored manufacturing and
testing.

Extra processing required. Selective
removal/replacement processes and compatibility validation.

Theoretically possible

Functional replacement of inorganic components with organics is conceptually valid for select use-cases.

Structural possibility

Select replacements can be designed as structural composites for specific components; case-by-case validation.

Easy maintenance

Structural replacements behave like inert composites; minimal upkeep required.

Map target component to replace Panel, core, filler

Choose

Organic substitute and reinforcement strategy.

Compatibilise

Plasticizers, crosslinkers, fibers.

Process

Extrusion, pultrusion, lamination, 3D print.

Form

To desired geometry; control voids.

Cure/solidify per chemistry.

Join

To system (mechanical/adhesive).

Finish surfaces

Apply protection.

QA

Mechanical, thermal, water, fire.

Maintenance:

Visual checks; minimal if inert.

Relevant Readings

Incorporation of agricultural residues as partial substitution for cement in concrete and mortar – A review

Influence of using agro-waste as a partial replacement in cement on the compressive strength of concrete – A statistical approach

Production of cleaner binders by reusing agricultural by-products: An approach towards zero cement concrete for sustainable future infrastructure

Eco-friendly agro-waste based geopolymer-concrete: a systematic review

Recent Advances in the Application of Agricultural Waste in Construction

Utilization of Agricultural By-Products as a Partial Replacement of Cement in Construction: A Review

Effect of Agricultural Crop Wastes as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete Production

Structural Performance of Laterite soil Stabilised with Cement and Blue Gum (Eucalyptus Globulus) Wood Ash for Use as a Road base Material

Earthen/Clay

Process

Process +

Cons

Pros

Susceptible to erosion and moisture damage; expect touch-ups or protective
coatings.

Theoretically possible

Earthen materials are historically validated; theoretical viability is unquestioned.

Lab proven

Earthen mixes are widely validated in lab and field.

High availability

Soils and clays are widely available; quality varies by
site.

Easy processing

Mix design and stabilization; generally low-tech processes.

Structurally sound

High compressive capacity (esp. when stabilized); long tradition of structural use.

Sample

Survey soil and extract sample.

Lab tests

Sieve, Atterberg limits, Proctor.

Mix design

Clay/silt/sand; additives if needed (lime, fibers).

Moisture

Condition to optimum.

Forming

Rammed earth, CEB, adobe, plaster.

Compaction

To target density.

Cure/dry

Slowly; protect from rain.

Finish

Apply coatings/caps/overhangs; ensure drainage.

QA

Compressive, erosion, absorption.

Maintenance

Inspect edges, recoat as needed.

Relevant Readings

Stabilization of rammed earth with waste materials for sustainable construction under rainfall Conditions: With consideration of life cycle assessment (LCA)

Reuse of livestock waste for the reinforcement of rammed-earth materials: investigation on mechanical performances

A Methodology to Optimize Natural By-Product Mixes for Rammed Earth Construction Based on the Taguchi Method

Valorization of Mining By-Products for Rammed Earth Construction

Alternative stabilised rammed earth materials incorporating recycled waste and industrial by-products: Life cycle assessment

Mechanical Behaviour and Microstructural Analysis of Earthen Materials Reinforced with Intensive Agricultural By-Products and Binders

Sustainable Earthen Construction: A Meta-Analytical Review of Environmental, Mechanical, and Thermal Performance

Bio-Waste, Bio-Pollution & Biohazard

Bio-Waste (US, New York)

1,500,000 Ton
Bio-Waste

This map illustrates the cumulative distribution of various agricultural residues across the United States.

One Metric Ton

Bio-Waste

#In New York State alone, an average of 1 metric ton of bio-residues are generated each year, highlighting agriculture’s potential impacts on water quality and ecosystems.

Bio-Pollution (Orange County, New York)

OC Phos w Vulnerable species index larger than 0.1.png

Regions with high phosphorus fertiliser application + high volumes of vulnerable native aquatic species

Highlighted area has Native aquatic species vulnerability index of at least 0.1 and Phosphorus fertilizer application of at least 0.7 kg P/ha/yr.

Regions with Dissolved nutrients in surface runoff from agricultural fields + high volumes of vulnerable native aquatic species

Highlighted area has Native aquatic species vulnerability index of at least 0.1 and Dissolved Phosphorous in surface runoff from agricultural fields of at least 4 tons.